INDEPENDENT STUDY RESEARCH ON THE PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF BUDGETTING Paper

INDEPENDENT STUDY ON THE PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE OF BUDGETTING TO AN ORGANISATION - Research Paper Example 22 4 Study Methodology 22 5 Analysis & Findings 23 6 Conclusions, limitations of the study and recommendations for further study 24 7 Bibliography 27 List of Table S.NO Heading Page No 1 Capital Expenditure Spent by Various Companies 15 2 Alternatives to Traditional Budgeting 18 2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT A lot of effort has been made in the theoretical area of budgeting and its concept but little has been done to show the applicability and the importance of the budgeting process to organisations. It is no wonder the truth that many students in the field of finance, accounting, strategic management and other related fields have a lot of theory and little practicability about the theories. This study was aimed at linking theory with practical applications of the theory of management accounting. This was done by looking at how organisations apply the various theoretical aspects of strategic managerial accounting. 2.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY This study is important since it was carried out t o reinforce the theory of budgeting and its application in real life situations. The study also gives advice on how businesses can go about budgeting and this will go a long way to provide information on the same to organisations. 2.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of the study were: To appreciate the managerial accounting theory. Appraise the importance of budgeting to the success of an organisation and discuss the available budgeting methods. Discuss the budgeting process. Analyse the assumptions of budgeting. To link managerial accounting theory with practical application. 2.3 Learning outcomes Appreciate the purpose of traditional budgets Appraise the conventional process of budgeting, including variance analysis Critically assess alternative methods of budgeting, including ‘beyond budgeting’ Analyse budget assumptions and critically review budget outputs To under the significance of capital budgeting To comprehend about the purpose and the nature of a marke ting budget. To know whether the company is functioning within its means. To help both management and employees to strive hard on common goals. Though a budget is a useful tool, it may not always drive the financial activity of a business organisation. To illustrate how budgets can be employed and amended for control and planning.(Open University 2006 :10) 3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Management accounting is a specialisation of accounting that deals with provision of information to managers for use in planning, decision making and control functions (Bragg 2009). It involves collection, analysis and interpretation of accounting information for managers of an organisation to help the managers to make plans, make decisions and control to ensure that the organisation goals are being achieved. Management accounting extends to cover strategic management, performance management and risk management which are key issues in management. The tools used in management accounting are costing techniques, budgets and control charts among other tools (Waygandt, Kimmel and Kieso 2009). According to UK

Impact of Management on Organizations Term Paper

Impact of Management on Organizations - Term Paper Example This paper is an attempt to explore the various dimensions and dynamics of the impact of management on organizations. Whether positive or negative and internal or external, the paper will critically analyze this impact. During this discussion, this paper will touch various sub topics under the umbrella of such as strategic management, leadership, and managing change. Body/Discussion Before even initiating the discussion about management and its impact on organizations, it is imperative to present the basic idea and definition of management. According to its definition, management refers to the process of achieving organizational goals and objectives effectively and efficiently by engaging in â€Å"the major functions of management, which are planning, organizing, leading, and controlling†. Planning is â€Å"the process of setting goals and deciding on the best possible methods of achieving them† (Hamel & Breen, 2007). Without goals, objectives, and targets, management cannot even exist. The first task of management is to set a vision and create objectives about what the organization intends to achieve and how it intends to achieve the same (Daft & Lane, 2009). Consider the example of Whirlpool, a Fortune 500 company which is celebrating its 100 birthday this current year, to understand the importance of planning as the function of management and its impact on the overall organization. The overall objective of the company, during the 1990s was to achieve the best possible performance in delivering the shareholder value. The company went on to define that as achieving the target of revenues of 15 billion US dollars annually from their existing level of 7 billion US dollars (Hamel & Breen, 2007). Whirlpool and its executives and managers knew that this is an imper ative yet difficult task and something had to done effectively in order to achieve this target. The company initiated intensive efforts to understand the needs, wants, demands, expectations, ideas, and thoughts of the customers so that the company could introduce the best possible products, which are in line with the needs of the

Protestant Reformation Essay Example for Free

Protestant Reformation Essay In the early sixteenth century, Western Europes religious face was dominated by the Roman Catholic faith. The Catholic Church was the sole athority power of day to day values, and before long, conflicting social and political issues began to shake the foundation of the corrupt Catholic Church. Moreover, Western Catholics began to realize the corrupt nature of the Church; as the selling of indulgences was challenged by Martin Luthers 95 Theses, the hierarchal nature of the Church was displayed via blatant acts of simony, and the concept was purgatory was outwardly questioned. Ultimately, as westerners caught wind of the aforementioned doings, an attempt to reform the Catholic Church began brewing: the Protestant Reformation. This Reformation ultimately led to several significant social and political consequences. On one note, the Reformation led to the once-all Catholic western Europeans being separated into several demographics: Catholic Christianty, Protestant Christianty, and Orthodox. As a result, the belief of the founder Jesus Christ was magnified, as well as the belief of the Bible as a doctrine of salvation (in the Protestant faith). Consequently, the popularity of the Bible led to it being printed in vernacular rather than Latin, and thus the Bible began to appeal to a larger audience rather than solely the wealthy and educated. This accessiblity to the lower class revealed the teachings of faith to a previously uninformed demographic. Also, Protestantism had created a new, highly individual spirituality. Survival and salvation depended upon inner faith and self-disclipline, thus a larger emphasis was made on personal commitments and values. As the teachings of the Bible were made more widely availible, the aforementioned notions became more widely available. With this newfound knowledge, and with the economic power of the church now lessened, there came a growth of induvidual liberty. These newfound attitudes and economic turn-around consequently reflected principes of, and led to, capitalism. On another hand, another consequence of the Reformation was many dispays of intolerance. More specifically, King Phillip II of Spain and Bloody Maryof England actively persecuted Protestants. Also, with the Reformation leaving the Churchs power teetering, several Rulers were empowered against the Church. Henry VII, for example, nullified the Popes powers, and in turn the Rulers of Europe had the power to rule their countries however they wished, from square one. This, ultimately, gave rise to the notion of nationalism, which gave rise to the growth of the modern state. Conclusively, the effects of the Protestant Reformation were very much significant. Starting in the hands of Martin Luther, the reform not only tore apart the religious unity of Europe at the time, but also contributed to induvidual attitudes and values, the growth of nationalism and the modern state, but also shined a light on the path to a capitalistic society.

Speech Structures Essay Example for Free

Speech Structures Essay As I listened, what I saw as essential in the understanding of the cases was knowing the name of the case and the state or court that was involved, the procedural history, the facts, the legal issue or issues raised in the case by the defendant and prosecutor, the courts holding, the courts reasoning and the disposition. If one of these items was left out you do not get the whole picture and the dilemma at hand. With out some of these parts it would be hard to follow where one part ends and the other part begins. One person that I listened to that I believe had a good speech structure was her case was on Pennhurst State School v Halderman (1981) which dealt with the Mental Institution and Patients rights. She began by telling us what her speech was about and the things that were found within the speech. She then began by telling us an interesting bit of the history of Pennhurst leading to the case. She had all her information set up according to the directions and also did a good job in transitioning from one topic to another providing the correct information. Out of all the speeches I heard I feel like my own speech could have been better. My speech was on Lawrence v. Texas (2003) which dealt with sex and privacy. I feel like I rushed my speech a bit and did not notice some of my mistakes. I believe my speech needed a tighter organizational structure which would have helped me during my presentation because some of my topics were placed in places they should not have been. During all of the presentations I personally do not think that any one of the students failed to follow directions. I believe that everyone did a great job in writing and presenting their speeches. Some were put better then others and some just like myself lacked a bit of structure. But other then that I believe everyone followed the directions as best as they could. Civil liberties and Constitutional rights After listening to the presentations I learned a bit about our country. I learned that even in our recent times there are still some states that had or still have laws that go against individuals constitutional rights. As well as I learned how each and everyone of these important cases changed the aws and the visions of many people till this very day. What impressed me was the courage that many of these individuals had to stand up to segregation, racism, discrimination, and other horrible things. What also impressed me was in the case of Plessy vs Ferguson and how a guy that was almost completely white put him self out there as black to put a point across since in his community he was considered black because of his one ancestor. He was labeled as â€Å"Creole of Color† and arrested for sitting in the â€Å"white car†. One thing that still sticks in my mind is the case of Thompson V Ok. It is unbelievable how a 15 year old child could commit such a brutal murder with no remorse what so ever and not be sent to death because of his age even though he committed such a heinous crime. After everything the discussions at the end of our speeches were very helpful. They helped in further explaining the situations as well as they helped put current issues into perspective with the cases that we wrote about. It was quite interesting in seeing how these cases formed what we are now and where this country is headed. And for the most part I feel like they are headed in the right direction.

Finnis Theory Of Natural Law

Finnis Theory Of Natural Law Critically assess the success of Finnis attempt to construct a theory of natural law based on practical reason and not on a universal view of morality as traditionally contended. The Natural Law Introduction. It is possible to trace Natural Law thinking from primitive stages of simple societies where there was very little distinction between the religious and the secular the spiritual and the physical. For many of these early communities the spiritual world of gods and spirits was seen as being in control of the physical world including human society. Such communities had a variety of gods and spirits resulting in a spiritual entity associated with numerous aspects of the physical world. This gave rise to a belief that there was some higher power in control of human existence and this power was governed by a set of rules or principles which mankind could utilise in furtherance of a perfect existence. The kernel of the theory of Natural Law holds that law derives from a higher law, which is contained in certain principles of morality. These principles are sourced in either religion (through scriptures) or reason. According to theologians, these principles are under the control and governance of a God or figure of Deity and which eternally controls all of creation. Furthermore, it is their belief that all human arrangements, including law, must conform as far as possible to these principles. Secular theorists believe that such principles originate from mans conscience a conception of morality, which is inherent to all men, and part of their nature. Such principles or rules are discoverable through the application of human reason and form the genesis of law making, constituting the higher law from which all human laws must conform. St. Thomas of Aquinas 13th Century Theorists who support Natural Law guidance assume that certain facts about humans and their society provide the correct basis for laws that guide human interaction. Regardless of the theological vis-à  -vis secular opinions it is agreed between both schools of thought that real laws are those, which meet a moral standard, found by using the right facts and practical reasoning. Historically, one of the most influential natural law jurists was St. Thomas of Aquinas whose teachings form the basis of the Roman Catholic natural law traditions. Aquinas integrates the rationalist and religious approaches to Natural Law. He greatly influenced Western ideals in the area of ethics, political theory but, in particular, his teachings in the field of natural law held him in the highest of esteem within the Catholic Church, prompting Pope Benedict XV to declare The Church has declared Tomas doctrine to be her own. Aquinas believed that the eternal law of divine reason is wholly unknown to man as only God knows its full extent but that it is partially known not only through revelation (the Commandments, the scriptures) but also through the application of reason. He also contends that human law derived from divine law which governed the relationship between all things created by Him. According to Aquinas, God is the highest good and the reason all matter exists and that such creations exist together in a hierarchy known as the Principle of Subordination. Aquinas divided law into four main categories Eternal Law Such law constitutes Gods rational guidance of all created things and is derived from the divine wisdom and based on a divine plan. Man can never understand eternal law in its entirety but shall be guided by it as he moves through life. On the one hand such law resides with God alone, mysterious and inaccessible. En revanche as it is responsible for various complexities throughout nature, mankind can figure out certain aspects of it. Promulgated law, mentioned by Aquinas consists of practical reason emanating from a ruler or a figure of authority in a community. By the same rationale, he contends that God, as a ruler of the universe also has the nature of a law and as He is not subject to time such law is eternal. Divine Law Eternal law which manifests itself in the Christian scriptures the Commandments or the will of God revealed in the Old and New Testaments. Such law, according to Aquinas, was necessary as humans require require guidance on how to perform proper acts. It was also required to keep checks on the uncertainty of human judgement and to provide divine insight on issues they are not competent to judge for themselves. The Natural Law According to Aquinas, It is evident that all things partake somewhat of the eternal law, in so far as, namely, from its being imprinted on them à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Wherefore it (humans nature) has a share of the Eternal Reason, whereby it has a natural inclination to its proper act and end: and this participation of the eternal law in the rational creature is called the natural law From this Aquinas contends that Natural Law exists among man in the world and it is as he states à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as though the light of natural reason by which we discern good from Evil. From this Aquinas gives us his definition of the Natural Law (participation of humans in Eternal Law) and the first principle of Natural Law (the capacity to differentiate good from evil). Human Law Is derived a combination of both the Divine and Natural Laws and must be directed toward the common good. Such law can vary in accordance with time but its essence must be just as an unjust law is not law (lex injusta non est lex). For Aquinas an unjust human law is one that furthers the interests of the lawgiver solely; or exceeds the power of the lawgiver; or imposes unequal burdens on the society being governed. Under this rationale therefore, Aquinas held the belief that disobedience to an unjust law becomes a duty as if the law is contrary to Divine law, man is released from obedience we should obey God rather than man. However such disobedience should be avoided if it were to lead to social instability, which is a greater evil than the existence of an unjust law in the first instance. Aquinas was concerned with the nature of laws primarily rather than the nature of a legal system or how laws operate. John Finnis, as will be seen later, was concerned with both equally. Law, according to Aquinas, is the use of reason for the common good made by those that care about the community and made known to this community. Aquinas believed that God gave humans characteristics the primary of which was our capability for rationality and reason. Mankind tends to do things naturally thus mirroring God as supremely rational. Using reason and rationale we can deduce what is self-evidently good and worth pursuing or what is self-evidently bad or evil and to be avoided. In this pursuit of good things we make laws for the common good using reason and are, again according to Aquinas, participating in Gods rational world order. Aquinas believed there are numerous ways to solve a problem and acknowledges that different societies or cultures may place different restrictions on behavior following from this there is not only one way to make law. The critical point to acknowledge is that whatever means are used are accepted by rational people. When dealing with positive/mad made laws Aquinas classifies them into real or defective. The former relate to reasonable standards of conduct in the pursuit of the common good while the latter refers to laws that do not meet criteria established in natural law principle or are unjust (do not meet the requirements of justice) and so these laws can be justifiably disobeyed. The Fall and Rise of Natural Law The secularisation of Natural Law began with the advent of the Reformation in Europe and the consequent decline of the Roman Catholic Church. This essentially resulted in Protestant theorists developing their own theories on natural law that were not based on papal teachings. Natural law doctrines faced further decline throughout the 18th century and into the 19th century where emphasis was placed on the notions of State power and State coercion. This era also saw a rise in the positivists approach to jurisprudential theories which were promoted by Jeremy Bentham and John Austin. Such jurists sought to separate the notions of what law is as opposed to what the law ought to be. The concepts of morality and law should be kept apart and the principles of Natural Law should belong more to the former than the latter. The 20th century saw a rebirth of Natural Law approaches to the study of law. To the forefront was the notion that there must be a higher set of principles (as distinct from positive law) which must satisfy natural law theories if law was to be regarded as valid. This revival was the result of a number of historical occurrences Nazism (whose acts were based on Nazi laws); the development of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction; the general decline of social and economic stability worldwide. Professor John Finnis 20th Century Professor John Finnis is a contemporary defender of natural law and a supporter of its resurgence in the last century. Finnis is a strong supporter of a neo-Aquinian natural law philosophy which does not presuppose a divine being. Instead of making reference to the form of good or seeking good, as was proposed by historical jurists he speaks of mans desire to pursue basic goods in life. Finnis focuses on goods rather than a single good in what he refers to as a theory of moral action for our day or in other words he seeks a theory of how to live well. Finnis The Basic Goods of Life This theory is based on the supposition that mankind sets out to obtain things they perceive to be good for themselves. In doing so, man must exercise practical reason to obtain that good at any one time. Finnis isolates eight of these goods which, according to him, cannot be broken down any more and so refers to them as basic goods in life. These are, he says, fundamental and do not derive from other goods analogous to the moral equivalents of chemical elements. They are generally things which for most people make life worthwhile and according to Finnis are self-evident. They list as follows Life life is the first basic value stemming from the drive for self preservation. Knowledge refers to the preference of man for true fact over false belief. Finnis calls it speculative knowledge distinguishing between knowledge sought for personal sake over knowledge sought as a means of achieving power or popularity. Play relates to performance for the sake of it an act or acts done for no point but an attempt to better oneself Aesthetic Experience relates simply to the appreciation of beauty but at all levels Friendship/ Sociability acting for the well being of a friend Practical Reasonableness the main concept which relates to mankind using their own intellect to choose his paths in life Religion relates to the ability of mankind to reflect on universal origins and of human freedom and reason Marriage a recent addition to Finnis list of basic goods. Marriage, per Finnis, is that between a male and a female and any sexual activity between non-married persons that is not procreative is inherently immoral. The first three (a) to (c) above Finnis calls substantive goods, which exist prior to action. The final group of these basic goods he terms reflexive goods which depend on our choices. Finnis The Principles of Practical Reasonableness To achieve these goods Finnis also has nine principles of practical reasonableness that are what might be called methods of operation that are to be utilised in the ordering of human life and the human community and the creation of the optimum conditions to attain these basic goods such conditions equate to the common good. These basic methodological requirements when taken in part or as a whole allow us the capability of figuring out the morally correct way of acting. The first requirement of practical reasonableness is a rational plan of life. Man must have a structured set of purposes which he should commit to and which guide him through life. Despite life, being subject to many changes one should not just live from moment to moment. Any commitment to a rational life plan will require one or some of the basic goods but such commitment will only be rational if it is based on ones capacities, circumstances and tastes. Secondly, I am of no more value than others but my own well being is my concern and interest and by having a preference for my own well being I will do what is reasonable. Do unto others as you would have them done unto you; put yourself in the other mans shoes; do not condemn others for what your are willing to do yourself these are all requirements of reason and ignoring them is being arbitrary between individuals. Good is to be done and evil is to be avoided a principle taken directly from Aquinian teachings and also Aquinas basic principle of moral action. In doing so one ought to choose and will only those possibilities where willing and action are compatible with integral human fulfillment. This principle gives Finnis (as we shall see further in this essay) and others committed to global human rights the most ammunition i.e. all actions that work against such fulfillment are basically wrong. The forth and fifth principles are related to each other and that of adopting a coherent life plan. One must have a certain detachment from all specific projects that are undertakes. If failure occurs in any of these commitments or projects we must not develop an apathetic attitude thereafter to life. A healthy balance must exist between fanaticism, apathy or refusal to participate. Thus if any commitment fails or appears to be heading that direction then one must look for a more creative or rewarding way to perform same. A further principle relates to the requirement to bring good to the community by actions that are efficient for their purpose. Over a wide range of preferences, it is reasonable for such a community to seek the maximum satisfaction of these preferences. Related to this is the need to favour the common good of ones community or society on a macro scale. Penultimately, no man should choose an act that would damage or negatively affect the participation of any one or more of the basic human goods it is always necessary to weigh up ones actions. Finally the ninth requirement outlines that one should not do what one does not feel like doing so man must act in accordance with his conscience a reiteration of a belief proposed by Aquinas. The Concept of Law Focal vis-à  -vis Penumbral As discussed, Finnis outlines that the human basic goods must be utilised in a community or society, as only then will the conditions to achieve these exist in the pursuit of a common good. This common good requires a legal system but such systems can sometimes work against the common good Finnis acknowledges this and states that a ruler has the authority to act for the common good. If he acts in a way that appears to go against the common good or any of the principles of practical reasonableness such actions lack the authority that they should have had. Just as Aquinas believed, Finnis says such laws lack moral authority, they do not bind the conscience of man and one is neither morally obliged to conform nor not to conform. Or put more simply unjust laws are a perversion of law and do not bind mans moral conscience. Finnis distinguishes here the difference between the focal or core meaning of the law from the penumbral meaning. The latter relates to difficult cases and unclear meanings of law. In such cases an argument is needed to demonstrate that it is appropriate to interpret the rule of law in a particular fashion. The former relates to laws that are aimed at the realisation of the common good for a community if such are unjust they will not be regarded as laws in the focal sense. It is in the focal sense of the concept of law that we must identify as it is in this meaning that we find a direct link between the law and moral order. Finnis Distributive Justice In his book Finnis links practical reasonableness and law when discussing justice and rights. He states that the whole object of distributive justice is the common good. With regard to the basic goods, Finnis maintains that the main criteria are need followed by function and capacity. Such terms relate to roles in communal enterprise together with opportunities for advancement of the individual in society. Finis also makes mention of desert based principles which relate to claims that people deserve certain economic benefits in light of their actions making people responsible for their actions and creative in their environments. The different desert-based principles of distribution differ primarily according to what they identify as the basis for deserving. These principles can be broadly categorised as follows 1. Contribution people should be rewarded for their work activity according to the value of their contribution to the social product 2. Effort people should be rewarded according to the effort they expend in their work activity 3. Compensation people should be rewarded according to the costs they incur in their work activity Finnis further suggests a requirement for private ownership as a requirement of justice when he mentions personal autonomy in the community bolstering this by adding that rule of human experience indicates that resources are more productively exploited by private enterprise but then diluting it by referring to the fact that common ownership and enterprise would be beneficial for all. Finnis Commutative Justice Commutative justice relates to a fundamental fairness in agreements and exchanges between social groups. It demands respect for the equal human dignity of all persons in economic transactions, contracts, or promises e.g. workers owe their employers diligent work in exchange for their wages while employers are obligated to treat their employees as persons, paying them fair wages in exchange for the work done together with establishing conditions and patterns of work that are fair and equitable. The central or characteristic act of commutative justice, according to Aquinas, was Xs act of restitution for Y for losses incurred by Y. This is based on the presupposition that X has already wronged Y. Aquinas teachings did not allow for X to do wrong to Y post restitutio so in many cases the primary focus of Aquinas discussions on commutative justice is not the duty of recompense but the primary question of whether Xs act is or is not a wronging of Y. The term commutative justice for Aquinas therefore is a wide one focusing on rights and wrongs in any interaction between individuals or neighbours. Finnis contends that Aquinas classification of the types of justice as opposed to general justice is fragile. General justice, according to him, is ones orientation to act for the common good or toward a common rule according to all relevant laws, either divine or human. Following from this, all laws (that are adhered to) are made for the common good and everything required for such good of a particular grouping in society should conform to a rational standard. Aquinas however, according to Finnis, clarifies that acting for the common good [according to reasonableness] can sometimes not mean acting according to a common rule. Finnis further makes reference to occasions where it is difficult to distinguish between rules that are intended to secure either distributive justice or commutative justice. He makes reference to the classical period in the law of torts, from mid 19th century to modern day, where such rules may be interpreted either way. Where at one stage the issue was what standard of conduct is owed to a person [neighbour] is increasingly moving toward being phrased in terms of the apportionment of risk. Finnis Human Rights According to Finnis, human rights must be maintained as a fundamental component of the common good. Such rights are subject to or limited to each other and by other aspects of the common good these aspectscan be linked to issues concerning public morality, public health or public order. Finnis believes in some absolute human rights i.e. the right not to have a life taken directly as a means to further end; the right not to be deprived or to be required to deprive oneself from pro-creative activity. Finnis turns to an explicit treatment of rights but then observes that his whole book has been about human rights, which he takes to be synonymous with natural rights The modern grammar of rights provides a way of expressing virtually all the requirements of practical reasonableness, the latter phrase, as discussed above, being equivalent for Finnis to the tradition of natural law. Finnis beliefs on human rights enable him to give an alternative expression of the version of natural law he has developed in conjunction with other modern day philosophers such as Grisez and Hohfeld. In answer to the philosophical question as to what it is to have a right Finnis identifies two theories, the benefit theory and the choice theory. The choice theory arises because it regards the benefit theory as seeing rights simply as the reflex of rules which impose duties. H.L.A. Hart taught that possession of a right was to have control over other peoples freedom or, what amounts to the same thing, control over other peoples duties. (duties being limits on freedom, meaning moral freedom or what a person is morally permitted to do). He emphasised this criticising a different answer to the question what does it mean to have a right? that having a right consists in being the beneficiary of someone elses duties. Hart argued that there are some examples where a person is the beneficia ry of a duty but does not have a right. He further came to see that the choice theory was inadequate, writing that the core of the notion of rights is neither individual choice nor individual benefit but basic or fundamental individual needs. Finnis also sees this as identical with his own notion of basic aspects of human flourishing. Rights exist wherever a basic principle or requirement of practical reasonableness, or a rule derived there from, gives to X, and to each and every member of a class to which X belongs, the benefit of a positive or negative requirement or obligation imposed upon Y, or the ability to bring it about that Y is subject to such a requirement, or the immunity from being himself subject by Y to any such requirement In brief, Finnis is able to recast his whole theory into rights parlance. The benefit theory of rights has been shown by Hart to be only a special case of the choice theory, so we are prepared for Finnis steady correlation of rights and duties. His treatment of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 provides not only a keen analysis but a general acceptance of it. His attention is drawn to the specification of what can legitimately limit the exercise of a right. To say that the exercise of human rights is subject to the common good serves no useful purpose, for the maintenance of human rights is a fundamental component of the common good. Finnis, in essence, extends his contention that natural law and natural rights can be regarded as two sides of a coin as duty on one side and the flipside as a right. The modern use of right to mean something someone has turns out to be simply a restatement of the requirements of justice from the side of the recipient. According to McIne rney, it is not simply that the old talk can be translated into the new, Finnis shows a preference for the new and praises it on occasion. Finnis A Critique of Practical Reasonableness Practical reasonableness is the key to Finniss theory of Natural Law. It is the means through which people grasp what is good and what is to be pursued, as well as being a good in itself. As discussed earlier, Finnis recognises basic forms of good, and asserts that this is an exhaustive list, suggesting that everyone who is practically reasonable will agree with it but if true must not practical reasonableness be an objective concept. Otherwise, people could discover completely different forms of good using their own subjective practical reasonableness. Finnis, however, does not agree and in his book expresses an aspect of practical reasonableness as the requirement that one should not do what one judges or thinks or feels all-in-all should not be done. This, he feels, expresses that practical reasonableness is not simply a mechanism for producing correct judgments, but an aspect of personal full-being, to be respected (like all the other aspects) in every act as well as over-all whatever the consequences How so is it possible to have a self-evident, indemonstrable good of practical reasonableness, through which all other forms of good are recognised, if it is acceptable to follow a mistaken conscience, whatever the consequences? Hitler, for example, may have genuinely felt he was doing a great service to the common good by ridding society of the curse of the Jews; and under Finniss theory, he cannot be criticised for this, because he was following his conscience, and because all of the requirements are of equal value. Ironically the prosecution of these war crimes were a principal factor that led to the Natural Law revival in which Finnis took part. Finnis regards practical reasonableness as an end in itself. He considers just that about all of the basic goods (of which practical reasonableness is just one) as being an end pre-eminently endish Reference is made however of a double duty whereby such reasonableness is a means of pursuing the ends of the other basic goods. So reasonableness is both a basic aspect of human well being and concerns ones participation in all other aspects of human well being. Can such a double-duty be performed? Is it actually a good, an end in itself or is it merely a method of attaining the other goods? Unlike knowledge for example, practical reasonableness cannot be pursued just for its own sake. Such a pursuit is necessarily contingent upon another end. When participating in it, the ultimate goal is not the attainment of practical reasonableness, but the participation in and realisation of another goal. Finnis would appear to place a higher value on the good of practical reasonableness than on the rest of the basic goods contrary to his belief that they are all equal. If it is accepted that it is both a means and an end that it does in fact do double-duty where none of the other basic goods do this would lend creedence to the suggestion that it sits atop a hierarchy à ¡ la Finnis. He suggests as much by stating that despite being free to choose which good we choose to pursue and which to ignore, we have no good reason to leave practical reasonableness out of our plan to live well. This would further introduce an Orwellian concept that the basic goods are all equal but some are more equal than others. If such a hierarchy exists should the basic good of life not outrank all others without which one could not partake in the rest of the basic goods. This, the author contends, unlike much of Finnis assertions, actually is self-evident. Next in line should then be practical reasonabl eness for reasons set out above followed by knowledge which bridges a gap between self-interest and a concern for the common good. Religion and all curiosity relating to cosmic order could come next although it could be linked to knowledge or a sub-category of it. Play is linked to sociability and friendship with aesthetic friendship linked to it as a sub-category. Finnis rates this as least important as it would appear to have the least interaction with the rest. Finnis natural law theory asserts that the values of his self-evident basic goods are the impossible to measure. Fundamental problems are created when morality is divorced from values. Finnis, as discussed above, requires a life plan based on these goods placed in a hierarchical format but does not outline how one should go about this. This places the morally right candidate in a unsure position as he may try to do what Finnis suggests but may never be able to achieve the required result as Finnis expects. Conclusion Essentially Finnis lays claim that the law is a social institution whose purpose is to regulate the affairs of people and so contribute to the creation of a community in which all people can live harmoniously while realising the fruits of the basic value system he proposes. In effect the law is a moral project where one must take the position of the person who examines the law with this person in mind. This is the practical reasonable person who grasps the basic values together with the laws purpose in helping others realise them. Whether or not a persons description of law is correct or not will depend significantly upon whether ones moral views are correct as it is these that will inform the way in which one conceives the project of law. Word Count 4,974 Footnotes 36

Free Essays - Chronicle of a Death Foretold :: Chronicle Death Foretold Essays

The Understanding of Characters Through Relationships Relationships create strong holds in novels. They give a sense of what to base a character's acts and decision's on. Through how the author uses their tone and descriptions, relating to relationships, a sense of characterization can be developed. "Anna Karenina", by Leo Tolstoy, translated by Joel Carmichael, and "Chronicle of a Death Foretold", by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, translated by Gregory Rabassa, are no exception to this clause. Relationships form throughout these novels, by incorporating literary elements like characterization romanticism and realism, giving characters a sense of who they are, and the reader a sense of their role and reference to the story. In "Anna Karenina", relationships are built throughout the story helping for the reader to understand characters and who they are. One of the two major relationships taking place in the novel is between Anna Karenina and Levin. Anna Karenina, arguably the most important character to the novel, gets many of her key traits brought forth by relationship problems. Anna's search through her quest for love is purely emotional, and at the end of her character's life Anna's reason fails her. She has too much feeling and emotion, a trait shared by many of Tolstoy's characters. Her feeling from her relationship tend to overpower her thoughts and opinions, giving the novel a sense of romanticism. She becomes disgruntle. In the end, Anna can't hold her own wits. Tolstoy uses characterization to present Anna, through the relationships she has it can be understood her attitude and personal qualities. Levin, one of the main partners in a relationship with Anna, is the hero of Anna Karenina. Through Tolstoy's tone and description in the interaction between Anna and Levin it is almost gathered that Levin was created to merely point out his superiority, and his relationships with Anna does directly that. Where Anna continually maneuvers hysterically to achieve the perfect romance, Levin strives to find coherence in life and death, love and work. This can be discovered through the characterization directed towards Levin. Anna becomes a portrait of alienation through this relationship. Levin finds harmony with those around him. In Anna, you find a moral collapse, while in Levin, you see Tolstoy's hopes and joys of his future. Anna and Levin show a variation of character traits brought forth from their relationship. The second great relationship taking place forms between Vronsky and Kitty.

Mass Customization and Global Logistics :: Economics Business Custom Essays

"Mass Customisation is - the customisation and personalisation of products and services - for individual customers at a mass production price. So, what does mass customisation mean for manufacturers and retailers? Simply this, that there’s money to be made and customer satisfaction to be achieved by allowing the buyer to customise his or her own purchases by choosing the size, colour and style from a predetermined, often extensive, list of ‘options’. The ultimate goal is to manufacture on a mass scale, retain or improve the margins associated with mass production, and supply a final product that meets each buyer’s individual desires. Apparel captures a major share of mass-customised products, but the concept stretches far beyond a single industry — to furniture, automobiles, eyeglasses, aeronautics, Barbie dolls, computers and so on. For the manufacturer, mass customisation offers an advantage because it differentiates his product from that of his competitors. It enables him to charge a premium for allowing his customer the ‘privilege’ to specify the final details of his purchase. Moreover, it allows the consumer to ‘buy in’ emotionally to the purchase, thereby reducing the risk that he will return the product he’s purchased — forcing the manufacturer to restock or mark down, or even worse scrap, the item. Success in mass customisation is achieved by producing items quickly; therefore it is critical for the manufacturer to find ways to reduce product development cycles whenever possible. In 2002. Fortune Magazine, and many other worldwide publications, proclaim: "You will have it your way". Mass customisation has come full circle. Allow us to provide our definition of mass customisation. It is the opportunity created by taking an otherwise standard product or service and modifying it to meet the unique requirements and choices of a single individual. Mass customisation provides uniqueness and freedom of choice; perfect fit with multiple options; fair, competitive cost; single-piece production; timeliness; quick-to-market; and, very importantly, the consumer is involved throughout the process. A compelling aspect of mass customisation is that it meets diverse objectives. The customer desires uniqueness; freedom of choice; perfect fit or form; fair, competitive cost. The manufactures want to differentiate from their competitors, to improve profit margins and to reduce risk and returns. Retailers want to sell products at higher profit margins, to provide product variety and choice for the customer and to minimise the inventory risk. Today’s customer for mass customisation tends to address the desires of more affluent people, those, for example, who can afford a custom-built yacht, expensive vehicle or a special item of clothing, but that situation is changing fast. Tomorrow’s opportunity for mass customisation will, in my view, be quite literally everybody for everyone; whether rich or poor, the desire for choice and